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The Prophet's Utterances (part 1)
[Links in the Young Avesta and the Vedic Texts] (1)
Səraoaša

The Prophets Utterances (Part 2)

The Prophet’s Utterances (Part 3)

[This paper is an expanded version of serialized articles ‘The Importance of Listening’ published during 1987 in ‘Manashni’, the voice of the Australian Zoroastrian Association of NSW, Sydney, Australia]

Pronunciation symbols
I have adopted the following transcription (after Kanga¹⁹& Taraporewala^29A) as permitted by my software, while avoiding the encoding of the ITRANS convention hoping to make the reading for non-academic purposes generally easier: -

a as in fun; ā as in far; ã (nasal sound ãn) as in ‘āvãn’; ə as in fed, ē as in fade; i as in fill;  ī as in feel;  o as in for; ō as in fore; u as in full; ū as in fool.  The nasal sounds are ãn as in āvãn; ən as in the French ‘trés biən’, ĩn as in Ahĩnsā (also pronounced ‘ĩm’ as in Sanskrit Ahĩmsā and as also in Avestan and Gathic languages) and ũn as in Humayũn. The pronunciation of some consonants (as permitted by my software) are ‘ś’ for ‘sh’, ‘š’ for ‘ss’, ‘ŗ’ for ‘ri’, ñ for ‘ni’, ‘ž’ for ‘zh’.

The pronunciation of the vowel sounds ‘ə’ as in fed and ‘ən’ as in the French ‘trés biən’ is unique to the Gathic/Avestan languages. These vowel sounds ‘ə’ and ‘ən’ are not found in the alphabets of Sanskrit and (Shuddha) Gujarāti (and possibly also in other Indic group of Prakrit languages) where all ‘e’ vowel sounds are pronounced as ē as in fade.  Also, it is interesting that Vedic texts appear to be conspicuous by the absence of a double negative although double negatives do occur later in ‘Classical’ Sanskrit.

Thus, in the Gujarāti version of the book by Taraporewala, Irach J. S., ‘Ashō Zarathushtra nā Gāthā’ ²⁹ all the ‘e’s are shown with the typical Gujarāti alphabetic ‘pã(n)khru(n)’ (pronounced as ‘ē’ as in fade).  In the original Gujarāti version of his Khordeh Avesta Ervad Kavasji Edulji Kanga¹⁵, however, uses a crescent above the ‘e’s to create the sound ə as in fed, and ən as in the French ‘trés biən’ and the typical Gujarāti alphabetic ‘pã(n)khru(n)’ to create the sound ē as in fade.   In the English version of his book Taraporewala, Irach J. S. ^29A uses the accepted symbols for ə as in fed, ē as in fade and ən as in the French ‘trés biən’.

It is worthy of note that the Avestan prefix ‘sra’ was once the Gathic ‘səra’ (Avest/; sraoša / Gāth: sэraoša / Skt: śrōša/ śrōš/ śrauš/ śrūš…etc) and the Avestan prefix ‘fra’ was once the Gathic ‘fəra’ (Avest: ‘fra-sru’/ Gath: ‘fəra-srū’/ Skt: ‘prā-śrū’).^17,18

A fascinating romance with the alphabetic letter ‘s’.

It would appear to my mind (untutored in linguistics) that there has been a good deal of  romance with the sibilant letter ‘s’ of the Sanskrit alphabet, while trying to establish its correct pronunciation in other languages, not to omit the English language.  No two Sanskrit Dictionaries seem to concur. 

To begin with, the one Sanskrit word ‘sru’ has a different meaning from the other Sanskrit word ‘śrū’.  The word ‘sru’ means to cause to flow/ to issue from/ to gush forth/ to bring forth/ to set in motion/ to arouse as in the case of a stream/ river.  The word ‘śrū’, on the other hand, means ‘to listen attentively/ to concentrate/ to take heed/ to try to understand/ to obey.’^{18, 23}  However, it can be argued that human thought processes flowing/ issuing/ gushing forth from the mind (Skt - sru) may also be construed as connotations parallel to ‘listening attentively to/ concentrating/ taking heed/ trying to understand (Skt - śrū).  Indeed, most standard Sanskrit texts as well as Dictionaries have used derivatives of both these words at different times quite loosely for the same ‘listening to’ meaning. 

In the Second Edition of his publication, ‘A Sanskrit-English Dictionary’ Sir Monier Monier-Williams, ²³ an outstanding Sanskrit scholar and a great teacher, describes the sibilant sounds thus: -  “ ‘ś’ - the first of the sibilants (it belongs to the palatal class, but in sound as well as euphonic treatment often corresponds to ‘sh’ though in some words pronounced more like ‘s’.  ‘sh’ - the second of the 3 sibilants (it belongs to the cerebral class, and is sometimes substituted for ‘s’ and more rarely for ‘ś’; in sound it corresponds to ‘sh’ in ‘shun’.   ‘s’ - the last of the sibilants (it belongs to the dental class and in sound, corresponds to ‘s’ in sin.”  In the Second Edition of his Dictionary he humbly revises his own First Edition pronunciation of the palatal sibilant thus:-  “As to the palatal sibilant ‘sh’ (printed in the Devnāgari script) I have  preferred  ‘š’ to the employed ‘ś’ in the first edition, and I much prefer it to the German and French method of using ‘ς’.   ………..so I should have preferred the symbol ‘ş’ for the cerebral sibilant, but I felt it desirable to retain ‘sh’ as in the present edition”. ²³

Looking further into this interesting problem created by this single sibilant sound ‘s’ in our own Scriptures I note there is an immensely wide international variation in the following sound apportioned by different scholars - ‘s’, ‘ss’, a more prolonged ‘sss’, ‘sh’, ssh, and, even, ‘z/ zh’ and ‘ch’ in world literature. 

Perturbed, I sought help from ‘Iraj J S Taraporewala’s Gujerati version’ (‘Ashō Zarathushtra nā Gāthā’ published in 1962)²⁹ of the original Edition in English (‘The Divine Songs of Zarathushtra’ published in 1951)^29A. The verses, printed in the Gujarati script are particularly helpful in noting the correct pronunciation of the Gathic words and particularly of ‘sru’ and all its derivatives used in the Gathas.  In all instances the ‘s’ has been pronounced, as the simple ‘s’ of Gujarati.  It is worthy of note that the Gujarati alphabet (or any Gujarati word) does not have a letter with a double sound ‘ss’ as in ‘miss’ and ‘misses’. 

There seems to be an unexplained anomaly noted in the printing of most standard Khordeh Avesta volumes in the Gujarati script.  For instance, the words Dush-mata, Duzhukhta and Duzhvarasta (‘Duzh’ means bad/evil) contain an ‘sh’ instead of a ‘zh’ in the first word, for reasons somewhat difficult to understand to my untutored mind.  The Avesta-English Dictionary by Ervad Kavasji Edulji Kanga ¹⁸ however, does have a letter of the Avestan alphabet thus -  ײ , which he has pronounced - ‘ss’.  Thankfully, the highly researched Avestan alphabet/ script, revised during the Parthian/ Sassanian Dynasties, imparts an amazing degree of accuracy in the pronunciation of the Gathic and Avestan characters.   

The following is a comparison of the pronunciation of this elusive sibilant in the English language in typical situations.  There are several anomalies. Let us study these carefully.  I have made each sibilant letter - ‘s’, ‘ss’, ‘c’ and ‘sh’ bold and placed its pronunciation into brackets after each word.  Note that the single ‘s’ is pronounced as double sibilant sound ‘ss’ when the ‘s’ immediately precedes a consonant (as in spree, string, slip, strip).  In the word ‘shoestrings’ the pronunciation of its three sibilants occurs differently as ‘sh’, ‘s’ and ‘z’ respectively.  Note, here, that ‘s’ sounds as ‘z’ when it occurs at the end of the plural words sprees & strings but it sounds as ‘s’ in slips & strips.  Now, let us listen to the pronunciation of the two sibilants in the word ‘surest’ - ‘ssh’ and ‘s’.  The first sibilant sound ‘ssh’ is denoted as ‘š’, having a special alphabet character of its own in the Sanskrit alphabet. 

The pronunciation of the ‘s’ in the Gath/ Avest word ‘sru’ (and derivatives səraoša/ sraoša…etc) is pronounced as the ‘s’ in the English word ‘sir’.  The first ‘ś’ in Skt: śrū and derivatives śrōša…etc. is pronounced like the ‘s’ in the English word ‘sure’.  The second ‘š’ in Gāth: səraoša/ Avest: sraoša/ Skt: śrōša is pronounced as in the English word ‘shore’. To help simplify this ‘paper’ let us use s, sh, shh as pronounced in our symbols of the words ‘s’ sundara (beautiful), sh (‘ś’) as in shata (100) and shh (š) as in bhāshhā (language).

Abbreviations
Gath: Gāthic, Avest: Avestan, Skt: Sanskrit, Pah: Pāhlavi, Far: Fārsi, Guj: Gujarāti, Kh Av: Khordēh Avestā, Ys: Yasna, Yt: Yasht, Vən: Vəndidād, Visp: Visparad, Rig V: RigVēdā, Ath V: Athārvavēdā, Yaj V: Yajur Vēdā, Sām V: Sāma Vēdā, MBh: Mahābhārata (incorporating the Bhāgavad Gitā), R: Rāmayana, Up: Upanishād, Manu: Manava Dharma Shāstra; S Br: Shatapatha Brāhmana..   

The Prophet’s utterances: 

This paper is merely an essay on a comparative search for meaning of the Prophet’s utterances in the Young Avesta and in the Sanskrit texts. 

In truth, most of us do concede how often we feel obliged to alter the previous ‘reading’ we had apportioned to a Gathic verse or part of it when we try to reopen the passage later and attempt to delve deeper. An ordinary researching Zarathushti I have found such candid comments from recognized scholars immensely reassuring.  The Prophet certainly sings his ‘Divine Revelation’ in parables. 

The Revealed Truth in his ‘mãnthra spənta’ has continued to cast a kind of fascinating spell on my mind during each of my naïve attempts at trying to ‘decipher’ the hymns.  The characteristics of some of these divine words (as also those in the verses of the contemporary Rig Vēdā) seem to abound in allegory, symbolism and figurativeness. The obscure complexities in some lines seem to resemble riddles, parables, metaphors and mixed metaphors and to indicate overlaid meanings.³  Some words given legitimacy with valid explanations by devoted scholars have been called ambiguous by others. The ancient meaning of such symbolic words belonging to a remote bygone age continues to remain somewhat unintelligible to my untutored mind, trained intellectually to view the written word mostly in a logical and factual sense. Still, the overall gist of the total message in the many interpretations appears to remain more or less the same.  The unrequited inquiry for the ultimate extract must, nevertheless, go on.

The ‘Young’ portion of the Avesta, too, constitutes an enormous treasure house, intensely rich in inferences, invaluable in its suggestive links to the Gāthās and, indeed, worthy of being explored.  It is clearly replete with whatever the prophet would have uttered (in a prosaic manner in his sermons) to his followers outside his divine poetic hymns.  The thought processes of this intellectual giant in his sermons over a long duration of 45 years would have influenced profoundly the way of life and the thinking of his immediate followers and the subsequent generations. They would have later ventured to compose (and recompose in layers) the Young portion of the Avesta, partly from the lingering memory of his sermons, partly from their own inference of the substance of his hymns. 

In searching for a wider understanding of the universal message of the Prophet the Young Avesta certainly offers immense assistance.   For example in Mēhēr Yasht (Yt: X. 2) the unnamed poet /composer quotes Ahurā Mazdā (in his dialogue with Zarathushtra) thus:  “Do not break thy promise, O Spitamā, neither the one, which you gave to the Evil nor the one to your Righteous co-religionists”.²⁶  This rather extraordinary statement in prose form carries an amazing thought process, which is not found in the Prophet’s extant Hymns (see also Gāthā Ushtavaiti Ys: 46.5 for the only reference to the common Āiryānic/Āryānic divinity, Mithrā/Mitra in the Gāthās). 

Clearly, then, a closer study of these distant memories carried by his followers to far-off lands and conveyed by the oral tradition later, puts an enormous import in augmenting the available data in the Gāthic Hymns.  Not long after his death, wave after wave of the long march of his followers to distant lands in search of more amicable climes and greener pastures, commenced.  Their way of life (although basically Gathic), naturally altered as they rubbed shoulders with their ‘un-Airyānic’ hosts.  The Vedic people, it seems, had already commenced their march much earlier.³

As the generations passed by, the memory of what the Prophet would have meant in his visionary utterances may have become somewhat hazy, having been overlaid by an imposed different way of life among the host populations.  Likewise, if we were to, say, equate the ‘later’ Vēdic texts (handed down by human intermediaries based on remembrance - ‘smŗiti’) as the ‘Young Vēdās’ we come to realize that these authors were also not as highly regarded as the original ‘inspired Sages/Munis/ Rishis’ of the original -‘śrūti’. The authors of the ‘smŗiti’ had conveyed the ‘revealed mantras of the 4 Vedas’ [comprising the ‘iti vi-jñāyatē’ the Revealed Truth -‘śrūti’] not as divine Sages but as mere instructing/commentating teachers ‘Munimata’.  Yet the opinions/memories of these commentators were considered equivalent to those of the inspired Sages since they were ‘iti uktam’ founded on and deriving their authority from the ‘srūti’ and, therefore, of an undisputable high esteem.  Manu: ii, 10 ‘……………..śrūtis tu vēdō vignōyō dharmashāstra tu vai śmriti ………………….’ -‘but by śrūti (the divine Revelation) is meant the Veda and by śmriti (the remembrance of the sacred tradition) the very Institutes of the sacred law: these two must not be questioned in any matter, since it is from these two that the sacred law itself has shone forth’ ⁴

So should it be rightfully acknowledged that the devoted poets /commentators from among our close followers of the Prophet, who devotedly jogged their memories of Zarathushtra’s sermons (both in his Gathic Hymns as well as in his explanatory prosaic sermons - between verses), while composing and, later, adding to the ‘Young Avesta’, would have quite legitimately derived their authority from the Prophet’s ‘Revealed Truth’ -the ‘śrūti’ of the Gāthās.²⁷

Let us, here, inquire into and delve upon one single theme from the Prophet’s utterances while looking for clues into the knowledge of such ‘remembrances’ of the Prophet’s followers in the Young Avesta and into parallels in the Sanskrit texts. 

SƏRAOŠA – the symbolic word incarnate:

The following is a brief rendering from the Young Avesta of Sraōša’s divine attributes to help better understand the links, subsequently. ^{17, 18, 26}

The word [Gāth: səraoša /Avest: sraoša / Fār: sōroush / Guj: sarōsh/ Skt: śrōša] stems from the Sanskrit root word ‘śrū’^29,29A meaning ‘listening attentively to/ concentrating/ taking heed/ trying to understand/ obeying - willingly.  In the Gāthās there is a strong emphasis on listening willingly (as opposed to just hearing normally).  The quality of willingness cannot be more emphasized since willing obedience is a moral obligation, not a compulsion. There is, here, no cajoling and there are no threats, there are, obviously, no impositions or prescriptive commandments. Consequently, there is no fear.  The words ‘fear of’ the Creator are totally replaced by ‘reverence to’ in our scriptures.  Also, there is no fear whatsoever of the ostensible ‘harm’ from the evil conjured up by Angra Mainyu.  There are, therefore, no recitations or rituals to appease evil.   Evil is to be vigorously antagonized and fearlessly fought against and this shows in many verses and in the daily Kushti recitations, which clearly challenge all evil forces.  In the practice of our Faith nobody ever becomes ‘possessed’ (by evil - that is).  There are, therefore, no rites of exorcism, there is no belief in ghosts.  The Fravashis we invoke are not equated with ghosts.

The Māghavans (of the Young Avesta period) were incorrectly assumed to be magicians. The words ‘magic wand’ stem from observations, during Sassānian times, of the Māghavans and some faithful carrying a bundle of Bārsom twigs in their right hand on certain auspicious days as a means of remaining in close contact with the Minōg world.  The wand-like bundle of Bārsom twigs was also held (in the left hand) when the right hand of the officiating Fire attendant was busy tending the Fire (the proof of this is depicted on the reverse of Sassānian coins).

This concept of listening attentively brings out the supreme human quality of Intent.  The intention, whether good or otherwise is the very basis on which the vital oral tradition of our ancestors (the texts were memorized, recited, chanted, commented upon, inquired into but not written) helped to preserve the teachings of the Prophet in Zarathushti minds, until the written word became widely used.  There is no word in the Young Avesta, which means to read or write. The Avestan word ‘to decorate’ was often used in Middle Persian to mean ‘to write’.  Still later, writing in an adorning fashion became known as calligraphy.

The Yazata, ‘Sraoša’ is depicted almost as if he were a Gathic/Avestan living person. The word, along with its derivative - Gāthic ‘sru /Vedic śrū’ ^29,29A grammatically commands, a high position, both, as a divine guardian and as possessing precisely designated functions/duties (to be exercised both in the Minō and the Geti domains).  This was ordained by Ahurā Mazdā and revealed to Zarathushtra.  Both, the personification and the ordained qualities (divine attributes of the Creator) seem to appear valid in the proper context of the Prophet’s utterances to the point of this Yazata being worthy of ‘reverence’.  The reverence apportioned to Sraoša is second only to the reverence to the 7 Immortals in the Young Avesta.  The fact that the word had a pre-Zarathushtrian existence and influence should not detract from the prophet’s fervor as an extraordinary poet.

There is no reason why we, as the distant followers of the Prophet (even during this materialistic age of unrequited speed and an unlimited thirst for acquisition) should choose to relegate the Young Avestan interpretations of his devoted early followers. The prosaic format of the Young Avesta belongs to some bygone era of a different historical period, composed (and built up orally layer after layer) at a leisurely tempo of life governed by the slow cycle of the soil.  In the words of the great Vedic scholar, Lōkmānya Bāl Gangādhar Tilak: “…..words, like fossils, very often preserve the oldest ideas of facts in the language. Though the Vedic poets may have forgotten the original meaning of these phrases, that is no reason why we should refuse to draw from the history of these words such conclusions as may legitimately follow from it”.³⁰ 

In addition, I think this valid passage by Ryszard Antolak serves to justify the strategic use and symbolic importance of the words in the Prophet’s utterances: - “The language of poetry is the language of the whole man, not just of the intellect.  It is the language of myth and symbol and personal experience. True symbols transcend intellectual deciphering, calling for other levels of consciousness, which elude words and concepts.  A symbol is lived - that is how its meaning is found.  Religion, too, is lived, not just thought about.  The world of the Yazatas is part of this living world of symbols”.¹        

Source of references in the Young Avesta ^{17, 18, 26, 29, 29A}

Such is the reverence this human quality of willing obedience held under that Sraoša is quoted in all Yasnas, in the last paragraph of all Yashts and, of course in Sraoša Bāj and the two Sraoša Yashts.  The Yazata is as extensively quoted in the Avesta as the divinity Ushā is in the Rig Vēdā.

It is, indeed in the Sraoša Bāj that the Zoroastrian Confession of Faith [Fravarānē Mazdāyasnō Zarathushtriś vidaēvō Ahura takaəšō - “I confess I am a Mazdā-worshipping follower of Zarathushtra, opposed to the Daēvās, in accord with the Law of Ahurā”] is clearly embodied.  There is here a commitment the Faithful is openly and willingly declaring himself obedient and submissive to divine authority and attentive to the ‘divine truth’ as revealed by the prophet.

Fravardin Yasht (Yt XIII.88) ^17,26, too emphasizes this: ‘…….revering the Fravashi of Zarathushtra, who was the first to commend the authority of Sraōša’.  This, clearly points to the pre-Zarathushtra origin of the word. Even during his time, the Prophet speaks of the dismal failure of the Karapō-tāōs and the Kavaō-tāōs, whose intent was fuelled by conceit, intimidation and furious agitation - clearly an indulgence in group egotism and collective self-righteousness. They were groups of priests and local potentates, who had planned to remain in oppressive power by being ‘……..wilfully deaf to Mazdā’s message and wilfully blind to Mazdā’s glory’ (Ys: 32.15). ^{17, 18}

Ys: 60.5, on the other hand, celebrates the triumph of Sraoša against his arch adversary, Aəšma (who embodies the evil of disobedience, wrathful contempt and angry fury, all of which tend to promote extreme ego-centricism and self-righteousness). 

During Hākhāmāni times, this verse (found in the Dōā tandrōśti/ Daham āfriti) ^17,18,26 was first recited solemnly by the Mobēdān-ē-Mobēd with great telling effect in the presence of the Great King before the proceedings of the Court could be convened.  It was a benediction for happiness and harmony in a structured society guided by a righteous order.  It reads: - “In this house - may understanding obedience (Sraošō) overcome ignorant disobedience; may harmony displace discord and generosity of spirit triumph over covetous avarice; may respect replace derision and open honesty displace dishonesty. And, above all, may the Righteous Order prevail over the web of deceit and bring consequential happiness to all.”

Sraōša Bāj: The daily devotional recitations in each of the 5 Gāhs are always begun with this Bāj followed by the naming of the appropriate Gāh.

The major Sraoša Yasht includes the whole of Yasna 57 and the lesser Sraoša Yasht is composed of extracts from the fragments of Hādokht Nask.

Bāj of Sraoša: This consists of 5 Ahunāvars + the ‘Kэm-nā Mazdā’ recital at the Dokhmā.

Āfrinagan of Sraoša: During the ‘Aiwi-Sru-thrəm Gāh’ this recital is considered to assist the Yazata in his efforts to protect and guide the soul of the departed after sunset during the first 3 days.

Drōn (Guj - Daran) Bāj:  This is a ritual consecration of unleavened bread done in Ushāhin Gāh in honor of Sraośa Yazata among other Yazatas and, in addition, to all the holy Fravashis of the departed souls.

Vəndidād ceremony is also done in Ushāhin Gāh in honor of Sraoša Yazata as part of an elaborate Nirangdin ceremony for the departed soul.

Patēt ceremonies:  Among the 12 ‘Essential Yazatas’ for propitiation Sraoša happens to be one of them.  Also Sraōša is a co-worker (Hamkār in conjunction with Verethragna) helping the Aməshā Spəntā, Āshā Vahishtā.

Fravardigān (Muktād/ All Souls) days:  The reverence to Sraoša is shown because he cares for and looks after the Gəti - all houses and inhabitants and the Mino creation - all Fravashis.  The Fravashis, being guardian spirits of the souls of the departed, are also the protectors and guides of the souls of the living.

Ātash Niyāyēsh (litany to Fire): Among the 5 days of each month the litany is particularly recited, Sraoša Ruz is one of them.

Zindēh Ravān ceremony:  Recitation prayers conducted during the life of a person in worshipful reverence of Sraośa.

The Ardā Virāf Nāmag describes how Ardā Virāf, during his long slumber of 7 days and 7 nights perceived the conditions in the ethereal world with the help of Sraoša Yazata.

Priests: There were nine different orders of priests.  Among them the Sraošavərəza was a priest whose duty was to uphold the order and chastise those who did not perform their role correctly.  The Sraošāva was the priest of penance, atonement, repentance and regrets.  His duty was to merely listen to voluntary confessions thus allowing the person to, as it were, get it off the chest.  He was given no authority to forgive the confessor or the sins.  In other words he did not sit in judgement.

Avestan Yazata Sraoša’s (symbolic) divine qualities: ^{17, 18, 26}

In Yasna 57, Sraoša Yazata is the upholder of ‘Sraošəm ashīm’ (holiness), ‘huraodəm’ (majesty), ‘vərəthrājanəm’ (victory) and ‘frādatgaēthəm’ (prosperity).

He is dedicated to the destruction of evil.  He is described as ‘drūjəm jaghnishtō’ (smiter of evil) against whom he is especially ‘vərəthra vərəthra-vastəmō’ (triumphantly victorious).  To maintain this he has to remain ‘nōit paschaəta hushkhafa’ (not sleeping soundly) and almost always ‘an-avangha abdəmnō zaənangha’ (without sleep and always vigilant) and ‘pashush haurvāonghō’ (sharp-eyed while tending his flock). He is ‘amacha’ (courageous), ‘vərəthraghnacha’ (victorious), ‘haōzathwacha’ (wise), ‘vaēdhyacha’ (full of knowledge) and has ‘raya khvarənanghacha’ (a shimmering aura).   

He is a ‘hakha’ (a friend) and has plenty of ‘hakhaya’ (friends).  He is fond of friends, who are ‘hakhaya razishtyāō chistyāō’ (of the highest knowledge).  His friendliness is especially soulful to the weak and the oppressed and to under-privileged men and women.  He is therefore ‘drighāōshcha amavat nmānəm ham ta sahtəm’ (bringer of reassuring strength to the houses of the poor).  He is fond of and makes special effort to protect the house of the righteous.  He is ‘ashahē jaghmushtəmō’ (most helpful to the righteous) and ‘ashahē apanōtэmō’ (most superior in righteousness). 

In his friendliness he is most dedicated to the welfare of Youth. He is therefore described as showing ‘yūnām aōjištəm’ (strength among youth), ‘yūnām tanjištəm’ (firmness with the young), ‘yūnām thwākhšištəm’ (wittiness among youth), ‘yūnām āsištəm’ (quickness with youth) and ‘yūnām parōkatarštəməm’ (resourcefulness with youth).  

He is the main representative of the material creation of Ahurā Mazdā on Earth.  He is, therefore, one, who is ‘dadhāt Ahurō Mazdāō ashava aəšmahē’ (the lawgiver Ahurā Mazdā appointed to oppose the evil acts of Aəšma).  He is a dedicated antagonist of the Daēvās and Akō Manō (the evil mind) as well.  All houses under his protection ‘Nmānāi Sraōša-pāta’ are free from their dangers.

He is said to ‘spəništahē āvãn Aməšāō Spənta avi haptō Karšvairim zām’ (protect the creation of the Aməšā Spənta over all seven Kērshvars).  He is ‘Yazata pāyu Thwōrəstāra’ (angel, protector and modeller).  The inference is that his weapons are mighty spears, a mighty club and a sharp weapon held high in his hand above his head (as defense against the invaders and to cause disarray among them).  With such weapons he becomes ‘kamarədho-janō daēvanām’ (smiter of the heads of the evil).  This was a symbolic physical gesture of reassurance to the masses.  The real weapons were the recital of the Ahunāvar and the Yasna Haptanghaiti.  These Mãnthra Spэntā were said to create a shield against evil (like a surrounding wall) and repel it.

He was ‘paoiryō Mazdāō dāmān frastarētat paiti Barēsman’ (the first in the creation of Mazda to spread the Baresman) and ‘paoiryō Gāthāō frasrāvayat’ (the first to chant the Gathas).  Being a ‘ratum bərəzantam’ (dedicated teacher) he became a ‘daēnō-disō daēnayāō’ (instructor of the Mazdāyasni daenā).  To do this, during inquiries regarding Ahurā Mazdā and during commentaries on the holy mãnthras of the Gāthās he is inclined to use ‘hu vachāō’ (good words), ‘papō vachāō’ (favorable words) and ‘pairi vachāō’ (appropriate words).

He is also the first in the creation of Ahurā Mazdā to spread the adoration of Ahurā Mazdā and his Eternal Holy Laws.  To achieve this he was credited as, himself being (tanu-mãnthrahē) the Holy Word Incarnate (i.e. the Mãnthra Spənta actually invoked by pronouncing his own name/ own self/his unique individuality). 

In Sraoša Yasht (vadi) Ys: 57.4 this context is clearly noted – ‘vispa sravayāō Zarathushtri yazamaidē’ (reverence be to the divine mãnthra of Zarathushtra).^17,26

GATHIC SƏRAOŠA ^17,18,26 (Avest: sraoša / Fār:  sōroush / Guj: sarōsh / Skt: śrōš; śrauš / śrūš/ śu-śrūš.  Derivatives - śraušat/ śraušãn (nasal ãn)/ śu-śrūšana/ śu-śrūšām/ śrōš-yāmi/ śrōš-yati/ śrōš-yata/ śrōš-dhi….etc.  The addition of the Sanskrit prefixes ‘śu’ and ‘su’ to some words could well have been inserted to justify the metric rhythm of the line in the Vedic verse. It occurs in the Vedas, Upanishāds Mahābhārata (Rāmāyana, Bhagavadgita), Code of Manu, etc) ^{2, 4 , 5, 6, 8 to 13, 15, 19-24, 28}

The prophet has used the derivative ‘Səraoša’ of the Sanskrit root word ‘śrū’ ^{29, 29A} and Gathic root word ‘sru’ (the personification as well as the Ahurā-ordained attributes) with enormous grammatical variation.  There is precision in spite of the enormous constraint and the restrictions for space imposed by the rhythmic metric beat of the poetic verses.

Links in the Young Avesta:

The basic word ‘Sraoša’ itself personified occurs extensively in several verses of Ys: 57 which is the main source of Sraoša Yashts ‘Vadi - major’ & ‘Hadokht -minor’, in Ys: 65 and in Vən: 18. ^17,18,26    

Variations of the word in the Young Avesta: ^{7, 17,18,26}   

In the following the same suffix attached to ‘sraoša-’ is mostly attached to the adjective, asha-’

sraošacha ashya - Fravardin Yt: 13.146  The Fravashis of the righteous Ahurā Mazdā, SraošaYazata and Mãnthra Spənta are evoked ‘as helpers’

sraošascha ashyō - Meher Yt: 10.52 The righteous person is described as ‘powerful, beloved of society …’

sraošādha ashyâdha - Ys: 60.6 ‘…….in this (house) the Bountiful Immortals seek for good Yasnas and good praises from the righteous Sraoša (who governs here), and…………’

sraošahē ashyahē - Fravardin Yt:13.85 ‘The Fravashis of the Fire…………of the righteous sraoša are worshipped’.

sraošāicha ashāi - Visp: 11.6 ‘...these we make known and we announce in this our celebration to Ahura Mazda (as our gift), and to righteous Sraoša…………………..for the sacrifice, homage, propitiation, and adoration of the entire creation of the holy…….’

sraošāicha ashyâi - Ys: 4.2 ‘……these do we announce with celebrations, and we present them to Ahura Mazda, and to righteous Sraoša, and to the Bountiful Immortals, and to the Fravashis of the holy, and to their souls, and to the Fire of Ahura Mazda, the lofty lord of the entire creation of the holy, for sacrifice, homage, propitiation, and praise.

Sanskrit links:

There is no verse in the Vedas or the Sanskrit Texts where there is even a hint of the personification of the equivalent word, śrōš; śrauš / śrūš/ śu-śrūša or its many derivatives.²⁵     

Ys: 28.5 Səraošəm mazdāi [About ‘faith/belief’ being the end-point of ‘attainment’ – the obligation of a total self-surrender to the Divine Will] ^29,29A

See the paragraph at the end.

Ys: 33.5 Səraošəm [About Səraōša being personified as Ahurā Mazdā’s earthly representative] ^29,29A 

In the young Avesta Sraoša is credited with a position second only to the 7 Immortals.  He is singular-minded and steadfast in fulfilling his duties towards attaining the final apocalyptic goal.  He is, here, ‘……vispē-mazištəm Səraošəm zbaya avanghanē’ (invoked as ‘vispē-mazishtəm’ -‘the most majestic of all’ in the pursuit of such a quest).

Derivatives as mortals in the Young Avesta:

Among the priests, in days of yore, the Sraošavərəza was a priest whose duty was to uphold the order and chastise those who did not perform their role correctly. 

Sraošavərəza is quoted extensively in the Vəndidād, Visparad and Vishtāspa Yasht.

The Sraošāva was the priest of penance, atonement, repentance and regrets.  His duty was merely to listen to voluntary confessions thus allowing the person to, as it were, get it off the chest.  He was given no authority to forgive the confessor or the sins.  In other words he did not sit in judgment.

Sraošyãnm was a criminally inclined person, whom ‘Sraoša deals with, effectively’ Meher Yt 10.26 &109.

Ys: 33.14 Səraošəm [About human frailties - the fact that even well informed/visionary Prophets can have doubts about their own likely expectations] ^29,29A  Here, Zarathushtra  (in the process of revealing his thoughts to the ultimate strength of his abilities to his followers) offers ‘the ultimate sacrifice of his own person should his supreme effort, after attaining what he had listened to devotedly, fall short of the dedication and reverence to Mazdā, in expected good thinking and to Asha, in expected beneficent deeds.’ 

Ys: 43.12 Səraošō [About the apportioning of the individual rewards or punishments as deserved] ^29,29A   Here Sэraošā, personified, being responsible for guiding the soul towards the Bridge of the Separator, is credited as being ‘a contributor towards the final apportioning of rewards or otherwise – whichever, each soul (after judgement) deserves.’  

Links in the Young Avesta ^{17, 18, 26}   

 1) ‘Sraošō-charana (also -karana)’ Instrument for castigation/ punishment mentioned in several verses of Chapters 3, 4, 6 & 16 in the Vəndidād.

Vən: 3.36 & 37 ‘………..the punishment shall be 1000 stripes with the castigating whip.’

Ys: 44.16 Səraošō [About the human qualities of willing obedience and good thinking when in search of divine guidance]^29,29A  This verse forms part of the daily ‘Kəm-nā Mazdā’ recitation.  Zarathushtra entreats Ahurā Mazdā for divine guidance so that ‘he may, in his teachings, be able to convey to his followers the full richness of submitting to both, the willing obedience to Mazdā’s message and of the love of all humanity in earthly existence’.

Links in the Young Avesta ^{17, 18, 26}   

1) ‘Sraošō’ –willing submission to divine authority

Ys: 56.1 ‘Willing submission to thy divine authority, O Ahurā Mazdā in this life is………..’

Ys: 60.5  See also Doā tandrōśti/ Daham āfriti above

Visp: 9.7 ‘…… all this, in the ultimate goal, can be achieved by willing submission  ..…..…’

2) ‘Sraošō ashyō’- guiding holiness

Visp: 12.1 talks of ‘……..an abundance in cattle and men with the divine guidance of Sraoša, of holy splendour….’

Vən: 18.23   Sraoša ‘…..guides the rooster (Parodarsh) in the glory of early dawn after waking him up to crow, for the benefit of all.’

Vən: 19.40 & 41 The verses are ‘in favour of reverence to the divine guidance in making use of fire as opposed to the obstruction of the evil of Spenjgar, the destroyer of prosperty………...’

Meher Yt: 10.41 & 100 Describes ‘the conquest of fear with the guidance of Sraoša, who is worthy of reverence.’

Ashi(sh)-svang Yt: 17.16  Here ‘Sraoša and Mithrā have  been described as the brothers of Ashi, Yazata of of righteousness & good fortune, in connection with offering guidance to those who will listen ….’

3) Asraošō - disobedient to the tenets of the Faith

Vən: 16.18 & 17.11 'All wicked followers of untruth subject themselves to the Druj: all those who subject themselves to the Druj tend to avoid willing submission to the divine authority: all such disobedient to the tenets of the Faith are unrighteous; all unrighteous persons are sinful.. .’

aśrauš - MBh: vi, 58.5 In Sanskrit the prefix ‘a-’ does not make the meaning of the word negative ‘Sir, I have repeatedly known about (experienced) the numerous sharp pains induced by Duryodhana.’

Ys: 45.5 Səraošəm [About the quality of willing obedience being equated to supreme dedication]^29,29A  It is taken to be the true path when moving towards attaining perfection.  Zarathushtra exclaims: ‘O thou Holiest, I will teach whatever I have attained by listening attentively to thy Mãnthra Spənta, which are the best words for all right minded mortals yearning for guidance towards the Perfection of an Immortal Existence’.  

Links in the Young Avesta ^{17, 18, 26}

Fravardin Yt: 13.88 ‘……who but Zarathushtra was the first who spoke of the welfare of cattle, of righteousness……….of willing obedience to the precepts of the Faith……..’

Also quoted extensively as ‘Sraošəm ašim’, the ‘righteous Sraoša’ in Ys: 57, Afrinagan Sraoša and Afrin Paighambar Zarthust

Ys: 50.4: Səraošānē - [About a focused desire for hearing someone/ something specific]^29,29A  ‘……I will, with sincere attention, remain anxiously desirous of hearing the melodious hymns of reverence emanating from thy House of Song.’

Sanskrit links: śraušãn (nasal ãn)/ śu-śrūšana/ śu-śrūšām^{2, 4 , 5, 6, 8 to 13, 15, 19-24, 28}    

The Sanskrit prefixes ‘śu’ and ‘su’ are the Gathic/Avestan ‘hu’, meaning good/ sincere. The addition of these prefixes could well have been inserted to justify the metric rhythm of the line in the Vedic poetic verse. It occurs in the Vedas, Rāmāyana, Mahābhārata, the Code of Manu and in the Upanishāds.             

śraušãn -  MBh: iii, 21.15: ‘There I came to understand that Salva had left the city………….’

śu-śrūšana - R: 2.2 39: ‘Rama, the best among men always asks us - Have your disciples been keenly desirous of  attending to - diligent -  in their duties ?’

śu-śrūšā(m) - R: 2.24.13: ‘Until Dasharatha, great King, my father is alive you should serve him well. There is eternal justice in this.’

Ys: 46.17: Səraošā [About the capacity of wise discrimination] ^29,29A 

Zarathushtra beseeches Zāmāsp, calling him wise because ‘after listening attentively he took heed and submitted to the divine authority of Mazdā’s message.’  It, thus, granted him ‘the capacity to discriminate thoughtfully, to be able to appreciate the merits of gainful activity (opposed to sloth) and of the words of the wise (opposed to the unwise) in his quest to be able to reach the supreme realm of Ashavanhood’.

Links in the Young Avesta

Sraošāt - Āfringan-ē-gahanbar.4 (Translation courtesy of Kaikhusroo M. Dastur Jamasp-Asa) ¹⁵

‘Discreet from your obedience, most correctly faithful in your speech, most saintly in your sanctity, most ordered in your exercise of power, least straightened by oppressions…………….most merciful of givers, most helpful to the poor, fulfilling most of the rituals – the blessed and longed-for Asha’

Sanskrit links: : (sarōša)/ śrōš/ śrauš/ śraušat/ śrūš ^{2, 4 , 5, 6, 8 to 13, 15, 19-24, 28}                  

Sarošā - MBh: 73.30 - This Vedic word appearing akin to the Gujarati saroshā occurs several times in the Appendix -‘Harivansa’ of ‘The Mahābhārata’.  A composite word of ‘sa’ meaning containing / possessed with and ‘rošā’ meaning anger / rage ^{22, 25}  it has no relevance to Sraošā.

Merely out of interest the verse reads and translates (literally) as follows: -   

Sā saroshā punabhrutvā nīnthatī tasya tam varam

Uvāch vyathitā devī dhānavã dhushtvādhinam…… 

(She, honorable woman, with renewed anger, cursing the boon announced by him, disturbed at heart said to that offensive demon…….) ²⁵  

śrōš-yāmi - MBh: iii, 61.29 ‘From whom shall I obtain the (sweet) message that King Nala……….’ 

śrōša-māna - Rig V: vii,7. 6  ‘...who, listening attentively, have advanced the people’s welfare and……….’

śrōš-dhi - Ath V: iii, xvii, v: ‘May this vital life-breath promote good, fruitful and sin-eliminating knowledge for this soul.’

śrōsh-yāmi - Ath V: iv.iv.1.110: ‘Smiling and witty and her wisdom was sweet and friendly.  When may we be able to attain such invaluable diction, O Lakshman.’

śrōsh-yāsi - MBh: vi, 40.58 ‘With your mind relinquish all your acts to me, be absorbed in me, embrace the yoga of the spirit and always have your mind on me.’

śrōš-yati - R: ii, 12.72 ‘Sitā, alas, will be come to know woefully two unpleasant messages.……..…’

śrōš-yata - R: ii, 1.46: ‘The hurried Dasaratha did not call for King Kekaya, the maternal uncle of Bharatha or King Janaka, as he thought they both would come to know the good news even later.’

śu-śrūša - Manu: i, 91: ‘The one duty the Lord has prescribed to the Sudra is to remain diligent and attentive in service even to these (other) three castes’.

śrauš - MBh: viii, 28.62 ‘You would have often heard about the announcement to the kings by Drona and Bhīšma, declaring  the Krishnas to be invincible.’ (The two Krishnas might be Krishna and Balarāma or Krishna and Arjuna).²⁵

śraušat - Rig V: i, 139.1 ‘Let the sacred formula be pronounced!  In truth I would honour Agni first …… ’

Kreyenbroek ²⁰  (page 164) discusses a valid point.  He suggests that the words ‘astu śraušat agnim yaja’ here is used (in a point of ritual) of the sense of the Gathic ‘to worship’ rather than the normal Vedic sense ‘to sacrifice’, the part which Zarathushtra did not promote. This makes sense since after this the Hotr (priest) begins his recitation with the words ‘yē yajamahē’ reminiscent of the Avestan ‘yazamaidē’ (praise /reverence be to). This further indicates that both formulae have a common origin in the Indo-Iranian ritual.  See the equivalent Avestan word, sraošāt in Āfrinagan-ē-Gahanbār.4 above.

OTHER GATHIC DERIVATIVES with links in the Young Avesta and the Vēdic scriptures.

Gath: ‘Fəra-sru’¹⁸/ Avest: ‘Fra-sru’/ Skt: ‘Prā-śrū’: ^17,18,29,29A

The Gathic/Avestan prefixes Fəra/ Fra and Skt: Prā emphasize clarity, carefulness, precision - thus, here, well-heard of and, therefore, also, (a person made) well known/ famous/ a celebrity, a social acceptance - making the chanting clear and audible (literally broadcasting)/ making a person renowned; famous; worthy of wide social acceptance and praise, even reverence.  In the chanting of the ‘Mãnthra Spənta’ of the hymns there is emphasis on accuracy (correctly, clearly, audibly and with proper accent) after listening carefully.¹⁷ Such an application involves the entire human spectrum of hearing, listening, understanding, ascertaining and finally, analysing and discriminating. 

‘Fəra-Srūta’¹⁸- Ys: 50.8 the Prophet uses the word most effectively. ‘With audible chanting emanating with ecstasy from the very depth of my being and with my hands uplifted, I beseech thee, O Mazdā ………’

This verse indicates emphasis on and the social merits of (literally) ‘broadcasting the Hymns by chanting them aloud and audibly’.  In the absence of reading the virtuosity of the preacher was measured by his loud voice, with all its soulful intonation, its crescendos, modulations, variations of tone and emotional output and its changes of tempo. Such a proficiency in oratory brought immense appreciation and delight to the ears of the ancients.  It would appear that, during Gāthic times in the adoration of the divine, there would have been a clear social acceptance, indeed a social norm of loud communal singing in large congregations associated with tremendous frenzy and rhythmic movements. ²⁷  

Links in the Young Avesta: ^{17, 18, 26}  

Fra-Srūiti - About purification of the house.  ‘Three times purify by washing the body, three times by washing the clothes, three times by audible chanting of the Gathas………….’

Fra-Srūiti - Ys: 9.14 ‘….famed in Airyana Vaejah art thou, O Zarathushtra, having  been the first to recite the Ahuna-vairya, four times with deep intonation, with verses kept apart and with louder and louder voice.

Fra-srūtahē - Visp: 12.2 explains the quality of listening certainly requires patience, attention and concentration ‘the possession of good understanding and deep meditation during the recitation in order to reach understanding and discrimination ‘………the appreciation of the Ahunāvar when ‘chanted correctly in a singing intonation’.

Fra-sraōthra (Skt: Prā-śrōtra) Derivatives: Fra-sraōthrəm Visp: 2.6 & Fra-sraōthrahē Visp: 1.4 ‘…… And with this offering of Baresman I desire the adoration of the annual seasons, the holy lords of the holy order, the chanting of the Ahunavar…..., and Ashem Vohu………, and the Yenghe hatam……….’.

Fəra-Srūidyāi ^18,29,29A Ys: 46.13 & Ys: 46.14 the Prophet talks about the socially acceptable worthiness of those widely known and famous   ‘Such men, who are, thus, helpers of Spitamā Zarathushtra shall be deemed as being worthy…………..’ and ‘…… Zarathushtra, as a friend and an adherent of Truth, shall deem the guild of Māghavans worthy, too………………’

Links in the Young Avesta: ^{17, 18, 26}  

Fra-srūtəm - Meher Yt X.47 ‘The one, renowned  for his knowledge, in anger progressed towards…...’

Fra-srūtām - Ys: 65.3 ‘(Arēdvi Sura Anāhita) famed for the immense volume of water, which is alone equal to all the waters which flow forth upon earth with a mighty rush from high Hukairya to the sea Vourukasha’.

Fra-srūtāo - Fravardin Yt: XIII.29 The verse is in praise of Spenta Mainyu, whose Fravashi helps in maintaining the firmament ‘Ahura Mazda summoned all the Fravashis of the righteous, who are courageous………bestow well-being and are renowned.’

Sanskrit links: ^{2, 4 , 5, 6, 8 to 13, 15, 19-24, 28}                  

Prā śu-śrū van - Rig V: v, 87.3 describes the fame of ‘the strong and speedy Māruts through the careful hearing of the psalms sung from the lofty heavens.’ (Try and compare this with Zarathushtra’s yearning in Ys 50.4 above)

Sarva śrūth - R: i, 4.28 - while applauding two singers, describes ‘the all-delightful appreciation of their chanted melodies’ as ‘sarva śrūth manoharan’ (the melody of all melodies).

Bŗihad Araņyaka Up: 6.1.4 also talks about the quality of hearing - ‘Verily, he knows attainment - for him, indeed, is attained what he so wished.  The ear, verily, is attainment: for in the ear all these Vedas are attained.  The wish that he so wishes is attained for him who knows this’ ²¹

Prā-sravanām - Ath V: vi, 24.1: ‘May thou, Lord of all creation protect me in my eagerness to broadcast  thy sacred tradition.’

Prati-śrūta - a focused attention during intense conversation ending in an appropriate reply/ an agreement/ a promise.

Prati-śrūtya - R: i, 11.21: ‘The sage’s son replied, in turn, to King Ramapāda. “So, will it be done, Sire”.’

Prati-śrū-śrāva - R: i, 1.44: ‘……..to those well versed the promise meant that that the devas in the forest will be eradicated’.

Gath:  ‘Vi-sru’ - This prefix emphasises completeness -‘listening carefully (without distraction) to every syllable and to the very end.’  Also it carries the meaning ‘highly respected/a renowned person/celebrity’.

Links in the Young Avesta:  

Fravardin Yt XIII. 91^17,18,26 talks of ‘the Spiritual and Temporal Lords listening to the sermons carefully and to the very end when the interpretation of the righteous mãnthra is praised.’ 

 Sanskrit links: vi-śrū/ vi-śrūta/ vi-śrutām/ vi-śrutāh ^{2, 4 , 5, 6, 8 to 13, 15, 19-24, 28}                             

vi-sastrē - Rig V: x,71.4: There is emphasis on the Vedic knowledge having been manifested and conveyed through love and friendship.  The use of the word ‘Vāk/Vāca’ is taken as the form of a woman, bedecked in all her fineries (for her husband to behold and hear).  The word refers to ‘the attraction to hear fully whatever she has to utter’.

vi-śrūt - MBh: iii, 61.39  ‘Sir, thou greatest of all mountains, well renowned and divine of aspects, thou shelter of all beauties, I bow to thee………….’   

vi-śrūta - Sām V: i, 36.5: ‘For what possible reason does she, the all purifying Gangā, often create floods at three levels? How is it that she has attained fame as a beneficial river?’

vi-śrūtām - MBh: iii, 61.40  ‘…….know that I am the daughter of a king, the daughter-in-law of a king, the wife of a king -  I am Damayanti, I am of fame.

vi-śrutāh - R: i, 11.10: ‘The sons of Dasaratha will take birth four in number.  They will possess abounding valour and enrich the dynasty’s reputation, becoming renowned all over the Earth’.

Gath: Sru-yē - ‘that which has been heard willingly and is now common knowledge, having been communicated from the beginning; sacred knowledge transmitted by the holy Sages from generation to generation/ that which has received an audience’.

Ys: 33.7 [About the Gospel of Zarathushtra being heard of and therefore, known even outside the circle/guild of the Māghavans]^29,29A The Prophet addresses Ahurā Mazdā, Āshā and Vohu Manāh beseeching them “to come to his aid in ensuring the message of the Gospel reaches the laity”.

Links in the Young Avesta: ^{17, 18, 26}

su-sruyē - Ashi(sh)-svang Yt:17.17  ‘Who is he who invokes my assistance………..whose voice appears so vigorous as to be worthy of being listened to ?’

su-sruyəmnō - Behram Yt:14.21 Describing Yazata Vərəthragna flying swiftly like a bird ‘…………. …….anxious to hear the sweet songs of birds glides over the tops of hills, the summit of mountains, into the depths of valleys and up the tops of trees…………….’

Sanskrit links: śrūya/ śrūyat/ śrūyām/ śrūyatē/ śrūyatãn/ śrūyatām/ śrūyathām/ śrūyathãn/ śrūyatā/ śrūyantē/ śrayantē ^{2, 4 , 5, 6, 8 to 13, 15, 19-24, 28}                           

śrūya - Ath V: xiv, 1.2.1: ‘O primordial Lord, in obedience to the tradition of yore, as per thy command we have brought before ye the bride after marriage………..  ’

śrūyat - MBh: iii.110.9 ‘While it is common knowledge that Lompada was a law-abiding Royal seer ……..’    

śrūyām - Ath V: xviii, 2.2.18: ‘O thou Brahmachāri, I beseech thee to seek the words of the sages, who are skilled in a thousand branches of the ancient knowledge’